An Electronic Carriage or a Horseless Book?
This paper discusses three models of "electronic literature" and variations on the theme. Each model originates from a different type of "electronic publisher." This, in turn, affects wholesale and retail marketing channels. The paper also discusses a literary movement known as "cyberpunk", virtual reality, and the possibilities for virtual, interactive literature and interactive reference tools.
The publishing industry is undergoing a paradigm shift. As with all paradigm shifts, it proceeds from a known to an unknown. We describe innovations in terms of what they replace. We modify existing terms and concepts to try to express a new or emerging reality. Consider terms such as the horseless carriage, the iron horse, or talkies (now called movies).
Horseless carriage first described the automobile because it replaced the carriage, looked like a carriage, and moved at the speed of a horse. Decades later, the automobile has transformed our landscapes, the pace of our travels, and our concepts of time and space. The television has replaced the radio, transforming our evenings, the pace of our senses, and our concepts of news and entertainment. Only after decades have passed can we comprehend the pervasive impact of new technologies on our culture.
Computer once applied to people, not machines. It referred to people who performed calculations. The machine that took on the name, however, actually took the place of the function those people performed. The term for the machine replaced its original meaning.
The computer is basically a symbolic calculator; and, although decades have barely passed, it has already transformed our concepts of information and communication. We generally consider the computer as replacing the typewriter, desktop, and filing cabinet. Because the computer has yet to be understood for what it is of itself, we still view it from the model of what it replaces. Marshall McLuhan said that computers extend our central nervous system. Our central nervous system is not a symbol processor; it generates our perception of the world, our personal realities.
If the computer can process symbols just as easily as calculations, then it opens up a whole new horizon: electronic publishing. Today, we refer to the electronic book. Returning to the concept of the horseless carriage, carriage denotes the key concept, because that was the main conveyance of the day. The horselessness of Henry Ford's invention merely described a feature of a new carriage. People still thought of it as basically a carriage with an alternate source of locomotion.
The principal concept underlying the electronic book is the book. Where the horseless carriage at least continued to resemble a carriage, our electronic book looks and/or feels nothing at all like a book. If we talk about Sony's new product, the Multimedia CD player or Bookman, Apple's Power Book, the Dynabook, or a notebook computer, it is only about the size of a book. If we talk about a CD-ROM or a floppy disk, it looks like a disc. The word electronic adds nothing to the concept, except that it uses electricity to operate. It speaks in no way to its advanced functionality, or its enhanced value over a book.
The book, until now, designated a format -- a group of pages of paper or other material bound together. In speaking about the electronic book, the concept shifts from the form to the content. In this context, the book refers to the information content rather than the format or playback device.
In this paper, we want to focus on three principal models for what we can consider the electronic book and discuss their characteristics and variations. Each one originates from a different viewpoint or industry.
ASCII text has the advantage that the reader can search any word or combination of words. One can also export part or all of the text into a word processor for further manipulation. However, it remains an electronic version of the original. As this model represents the first step toward the electronic book, we can find many examples of this type of literature, such as Project Gutenberg and the Library of the Future. However, these types of products have come under criticism as being uninspiring, more cumbersome, and less inviting than their print counterparts. (We must remember that the first books were also large and unwieldy, often the size of attache cases and heavy from the wooden board covers and heavy paper.) They do not include formatting information, such as type face and page layout; so they do not produce the same "look and feel" as the printed version. Nor do they usually include charts, illustrations, and advertising.
An alternative to this approach uses a scanner to capture the image of the printed page. This preserves the "look and feel" of the original. Readers can see the appearance of the type face and page layout as well as charts, illustrations, and advertising. The drawback to this approach in an electronic environment is that the image usually requires three times or more storage space (1MB or more) than its ASCII equivalent. Also, users must rely on the indexing terms used at the time of creation or conversion to search the text. Consequently, it becomes less flexible and accessible than its ASCII counterpart which permits searching of any word.
A variation of this model allows readers to manipulate the text much the same way they would with a printed copy, without having to export it to a word processor. Some products, like Voyager's Expanded Books, permit highlighting or marking portions of the text; placing bookmarks, "paper clips" or dog-ears on a page; or making annotations, marginal notes, or end notes. Readers may progress through the "book" page by page or jump to a specific page. Hot links or hyperlinks allow jumping from a single word, concept, or note to related material. Some products may incorporate pre-defined links, while others may allow readers to create their own. They may also include the ability to change font, size, style, and line spacing to accommodate individual preferences. With laptop or notebook computers, these products become readable more easily and seem more user friendly.
Another variation of this model complements the text with graphics (photos or drawings) and possibly sound. This type of "literature" may incorporate many or all of the elements previously discussed. It allows a young or new reader to see pictures relating to the text or to read along with a pre-recorded sound track that may include music and sound effects.
Particularly appropriate for learning a second language, this type of product often teaches proper pronunciation for words and picture elements or in-¼context explanations of words in the text. It may also include a translation in the reader's first language. Links to other learning tools, like a dictionary or thesaurus or quotations can reinforce the learning or reading experience.
A variation of this model uses a larger amount of data than most computer games on the market. This allows for increasing the number of variables in the game, thereby expanding the number of player options or possibilities for correct answers. This makes the game more challenging. A broader data set also permits more realistic simulations which can be used to advantage in educational settings. With a generation of students that has grown up on video games, products that "Nintendize" information stand a better chance at attracting their attention and appealing to their senses to facilitate the learning process.
Examples of products that use this approach to their advantage include Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia and Time Almanac which both include a game to quiz readers on their understanding of the contents of the encyclopedia or almanac. Games like the deluxe editions of Where in the World is Carmen San Diego? include a broader set of clues, suspects, and situations than their low-end counterparts. They also use more and richer graphics, animation, and sound effects, making them more entertaining. Children learn by playing, often unaware of the education they're receiving.
Another product, which Quanta Press and Compton's New Media recently released, uses military data based on the Gulf War. USA Wars: Desert Storm includes a game, Coalition Command, which allows players to configure military units, missions, supplies, and tactics to fight the Gulf War. They interpret intelligence reports, evaluate political situations, set media policies, and compare their results with what actually happened. This should become the mother of all war games.
While many games permit user interactivity during play, this interactivity is limited to movement and actions and, sometimes, sequence of movement. They do not include interactive plots. In other words, they follow a linear story line. The player must accumulate a certain number of points or perform certain actions before moving on to the next level or scene or before completing the game. Few, if any, games have an interactive story line that changes based on player actions or decisions. At best, they randomize the variables so that the game sequence changes with each play; but the player must complete the same set of actions each time. The first game, to my knowledge, which will include multiple endings will be the second edition of Sherlock Holmes: Consulting Detective.The computer permits audience interactivity. Time-¼Warner's Warner Audio Notes series teaches musical appreciation by allowing users to read the history or story behind a musical piece, or to read the score and/or the lyrics while listening to a performance. A similar product for drama could let users study Hamlet's soliloquy as interpreted by Richard Burton, John Gielgud, or Mel Gibson.
Coupling the computer with appliances like videodisc and videotape players lets the "reader" take control and interact with the media. Some "books" have such depth and richness that we should not read them once and put away. Rather we should savor them, as each reading uncovers something new. Other books are not meant for reading from beginning to end. We consult them for particular bits of information or to read chapters or small sections.
Allowing the reader to determine his or her own path can open new horizons. Examples of this type of literature include IBM's Illuminated Books and Manuscripts and Columbus: Encounter, Discovery, and Beyond. These products use ASCII text, audio, and video in a variety of media: hard disk, CD-ROM, and videodisc to provide over 180 hours of interactive learning.
All of these models use the computer as a tool to involve the reader with "literature." Recent years have seen the development of a literary movement called "cyberpunk". This branch of science fiction concerns itself with the intrusion of the computer (technology) into our lives. It deals with the synergy between human and artificial intelligence and pays particular attention to vividness and texture.
One enters this artificial world by putting on special clothing wired to a computer. Gloves and suits with sensors and transmitters send and receive data. The glove resembles Mattel's power glove for its Nintendo games. Goggles include tiny video screens. Headsets provide three-dimensional stereo sound. Helmets could include both audio and video output. The computer generates sounds and images either of the real world or of an imaginary one that appear to the viewer in three dimensions.
Novels, plays, and films attempt to create an artificial experience. "The new technology allows that symbolic world to become concrete" says Myron Krueger, a computer scientist based in Vernon, Connecticut. Besides providing opportunities for experiencing alternative lifestyles or for exploring a variety of situations, whether real or imaginary, the concept could give rise to a new form of literature such as interactive novels.
The "reader" would control the action; and the plot would change depending on the reader's choices or actions. This will require writers to compose several parallel plots that intertwine.
The technology permits mixing real life with animation or computer generated graphics. The computer could take photos or full motion video sequences and modify them to create a variety of special effects such as we see in television shows and movies. Video effects such as superimposition and matteing can now come down to the user level.
Studies have shown that people who view films or play computer games can experience the same sensations and emotions as if the events were actually happening to them. Virtual reality would take this a step further and bring audience participation to a new level. The individual now becomes the controlling force behind the story. The plot changes with every decision the "reader" makes.
For example, a reader could begin in the "real world" as a modern-day Alice and enter into virtual Wonderland. Here, she could meet the various characters who could appear as her real-life friends and acquaintances. As Alice travels through Wonderland, she would encounter a variety of characters and participate in several adventures. She could even experience different adventures if she returns to the same location more than once.
Travelogues and guide books can open new horizons by letting readers travel through time and space. One could "visit" modern London; and, with a single keystroke, see what it looked like in Shakespeare's time. Or one could study the stamp tax debates in the American colonies and immediately compare them with the debates at the parliament in London. Such tools would allow readers to experience different countries and cultures and select points of particular interest.
"Visitors" to a museum or art gallery could select items that particularly appeal to them to pursue with more in depth study. Upon viewing a painting or sculpture, one could learn more about the artist or sculptor, the school, influences of and effects on other artists and sculptors. The armchair traveler could even take virtual vacations while getting a tan at the electric beach.
The cost of virtual reality technology and the accoutrements it requires will place it out of range for the average consumer for quite some time. One will have to go to special centers to get the experience, just as one goes to movie theaters or to arcades. Some afficionados of artificial reality have proposed the term "Cyberia" for this place. However, just as consumers can rent movies to view in their homes or buy arcade games to play on their computers, the day will come when they will also be able to buy or rent virtual reality modules or virtual literature.
While the developers of virtual reality sytems begin with a serious purpose, the technology will have far reaching possibilities that will affect many areas of our lives, including our "literature" and entertainment. Virtual reality signals the end of the infancy of computers which are no longer computational tools. Essentially they have become reality generators. And reality is in the mind of the participant.
Whether we now call it an electronic book, a 16-bit game, data game, or interactive television, the reality will surely change over the next few years. I expect that elements of these three models will coalesce. We may even see new models arise. Undoubtedly, this emerging reality will receive a new name as it develops and matures.
Positioning a product for the consumer market may follow traditional channels for marketing trade publications or popular software packages. Some producers may want to target an upscale market and avoid "cheapening" their product by giving it a popular image. They may make it available only through direct sales or exclusive dealerships. They may avoid bundling it with hardware, in the belief that buyers may consider such products cheap or "give aways".
On the other hand, as producers try to increase revenues by cultivating new markets, they may realize that their products may appeal to multiple audiences. In these recessionary times, some print publishers are trying to survive by cross-marketing their publications in markets which they previously did not tap. We will probably find this the case with "electronic books" also. This will also present new challenges and open up new avenues of business for book vendors and library suppliers.
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